'Zoonotic Diseases\r'

'Introduction Zoonotic ailments be septic diseases which providedt joint buoy be transmissible from savages to man. collectible to frequent tactile sensation and tameness of wild deportment animals, zoonotic diseases be increasingly graceful more than prevalent. Public greens and gardens atomic number 18 home to rife creations of shuckss. One of the resolvely frequent species cognize to thrive in such(prenominal) atomic number 18as ar uncivilized pigeon (Columba livia). Although on that point be few reports of disease transmitting system between pigeons and valet, their nasty interaction with domain and ability to carry zoonotic pathogens demonstrate them a familiar health gamble.In fact, these maams argon array at very eminent densities (2,000 individuals per km2) and arsehole cover a utter some distance of 5. 29 km (Dickx et al. , 2010). This whitethorn result in the increase encounter of pathogen transmission among separate poultrys a nd potenti onlyy to clements. Studies arrive shown that well-nigh septic pigeons do not show signs of clinical disease. These sniggers may thus tucker out a public health take chances to the human nation. Pigeons, like galore(postnominal) other bird species, abide entertain diseases that can be zoonotic in character. One of the pathogens nearly frequently carried by pigeons is Chlamydophila psittaci. C. sittaci is an obligate intracellular bacterium that ca intakes a disease in birds known as ornithosis or Avian Chlamydiosis. parrot fever is highly contagious and a great deal causes influenza-like symptoms, arrant(a) pneumonia and non-respiratory health problems. Birds can shed this bacterium in the environment when they argon every overtly ill or without any(prenominal) symptoms. C. psittaci returns most frequently in psittacine birds such as parrots, macaws, parakeets. However, non-psittacine birds including pigeons, doves and myna bird birds can besides h arbour the infectious factor (Greco, Corrente, & vitamin A; deoxyadenosine monophosphate; Martella, 2005).Therefore, pigeons are thought to be an underestimated stemma of human chlamydiosis. Studies ingest shown that pigeons pose a substantial zoonotic risk as are often shown to be naturally give with a rate of viruses, bacteria, fungi and protozoa that are pathogenic to humans. The potential for zoonotic contagious disease is change magnitude as these birds live in mop up contact with human beings. The aim of this overview is to present the zoonotic potential of C. psittaci in infect furious pigeon populations, in the context of its history, epidemiology and latest approaches in treatment and prevention.Pigeon population in urban areas Commonly known as ‘urban’, ‘street’ or ‘ urban center’ pigeons, the ferine rock dove (C. livia) is an abundant bird species that often thrive in streets, squares and parks where they come into close contact with humans. Pigeon populations in most astronomic cities increase worldwide after World state of war II. They feel made contributions of considerable importance to humanity, especially in times of war. uncivilized pigeons suck been domesticated and were put to use by making them messengers out-of-pocket to their put up abilities (Dickx et al. , 2010).Pigeons are 1 of the few animal species able to survive in our reedy and hectic cities. They are extremely adaptable, which overly enables them to accept breeding places that are violent to them, e. g. on trees or over rail ventilation systems (Magnino et al, 2009). They are too a valuable enrichment to the urban environment as they have a cleaning up function by take throw away forage. In addition, they may represent as a tourist attraction as feeding and care of uncivilized pigeons may be rewarding spare-time activities for legion(predicate) pot who enjoy the company of animals (Magnino et al, 2009). The extensive pabulum supply and minimal predator population has indeed provided the ecological basis for the large populations that occur in most cities of the world. Chlamydophila psittaci in pigeons The increase of vicious pigeon populations in many cities is a major cause of partake as they are a source of a large number of zoonotic agents. The most main(prenominal) pathogenic beingness transmissible from feral pigeons to humans is Chlamydophila psittaci. In fact, studies in Europe have shown as high as 95. 6% seropositivity value for C. psittaci in feral pigeon populations (Magnino et al. 2009). C. psittaci an obligate intracellular bacterium causes avian chlamydiosis in birds and ornithosis in humans.The bacterium is oecumenically treasure in psittacine birds such as parrots, macaws, cockatoos and parakeets. It is also indentified in non-psittacine birds such as pigeons, doves and mynah birds (Greco, Corrente, & Martella, 2005). There are at least six unador ned serovars (A to F) of C. psittaci considered endemic in birds (Seth- smith et al. , 2011). Each serovar appears to be associated, though not exclusively, with a unalike group or order of irds, from which it is most unremarkably isolated. Genotype B is the most prevalent in pigeons, but the more virulent genotypes A and D have also been discovered (Seth-Smith et al. , 2011). All serovars should be considered to be readily transmissible to humans. The avian strains can infect humans and other mammals, and may cause severe disease and even death. In contrast to the ravage explosive outbreaks in the scratch half of the 20th century, the present outbreaks are characterized by respiratory signs and low mortality (Harkinezhad, Geens & Vanrompay, 2009).Chlamydophila psittaci has been demonstrated in nigh 465 bird species comprising 30 different bird orders (Greco, Corrente, & Martella, 2005). The highest transmittal place are found in psittacine birds and pigeons. The first case of C. psittaci zoonotic transmission from pigeons was exposit in 1941. A mother and her female child had picked up a sick feral pigeon in the street in modern York City. The pigeon died after four days and, 2 weeks later, some(prenominal) mother and daughter create psittacosis with fever and pneumonia (Dickx et al. , 2010).Since then, 47 zoonotic cases linked to pigeons have been reported (Dickx et al. , 2010). As a consequence, feral pigeon populations have been repeatedly blamed as vectors for the transmission of C. psittaci contagions to humans. forethought is needed, as zoonotic transmission from feral pigeons is known to be an underestimated source of infection. parrot fever in birds Transmission of C. psittaci primarily occurs from one infected bird to another allergic bird in close proximity. The agent is ordinarily excreted in stool and haggard discharges.From time to time, faecal shedding occurs and can be activated through punctuate ca apply by nutritional deficiencies, prolonged transport, overcrowding, chilling, breeding, ball laying, treatment or discussion (Vanrompay et al. , 2007). bacterial excretion periods during natural infection can vary depending on virulence of the strain, infection dose and host immune status. The most common routes of transmission of C. psittaci in nature are the stirring and ingestion of bemire material and, sometimes, ingestion (Vanrompay et al. , 2007). The bacterium can be also transmitted in the nest.In many species, such as columbiformes, transmission from parent to young may occur through feeding, by regurgitation, while the contaminant of the nesting site with infective dejection are also weighty sources of infection (Vazquez et al. , 2010). besides the transmission of C. psittaci may also be facilitated by arthropod vectors in the nest environment, but its feature has not been assessed in the wild. upended transmission has been demonstrated in other types of avian species. However, occurrence appears to be slightly low. Chlamydiosis is a common chronic infection of pigeons.C. psittaci infection may result in lethargy, anorexia, ruffled feathers, ocular and nasal discharge, conjunctivitis, licentiousness and excretion of green to yellow urates (West, 2011). intimately infected feral pigeons are symptomless and latent carriers of C. psittaci, which makes it difficult to assess the risk of transmission of the bacterium to other animals, including humans. As mentioned earlier, increased shedding of the infectious agents may be triggered by stress factors such as other concurrent infections or infestations, lack of food, breeding and overcrowding.It is important to scar that as the density of nesting and roosting pigeons increases, the quality of life in the feral pigeon population deteriorates (Dickx et al. , 2010). In fact, excessive population density activates and stimulates legislation mechanisms that decimate nestlings and juvenile pigeons wit h infectious and parasitic diseases (Hedemma et al. , 2006). Crowded breeding places make pigeons run more aggressively, which again mostly affects nestlings and juveniles that are the weakest members of the population, leading to a progressive fluff of their physical condition.Thus, it is important for feral pigeon populations to be managed carefully in the urban environment to obtain an appropriate- sized and level-headed population. Psittacosis in humans Although psittacine birds are the major source of human infection, outbreaks due to pic to non-psittacine birds may also occur. The more common of these are due to exposure to pigeons, both wild and domestic. Humans most often become infected by inhaling the organism when urine, respiratory secretions or dried faeces of infected birds are dispersed in the air as very pretty droplets or dust particles (Smith et al. , 2011).Other sources of exposure embroil mouth-to-beak contact, a bite from an infected bird or manipulation the plumage and tissues of infected birds (Smith et al. , 2011). A study by Smith et al. (2011) suggests that more than half of the human cases were due to exposure to C. psittaci through contaminated dust, signal contact with pigeons through feeding and handling pigeons. In addition, about 40 of the cases resulted from short contacts with feral pigeons such as eating lunch in a park frequented by pigeons, walking through a pigeon flock, and support in a neighborhood frequented by pigeons (Vazquez et al. 2010). The disease in humans varies from a flu-like syndrome to a severe systemic disease with pneumonia and possibly encephalitis. The disease is seldom fatal in patients toughened rently and correctly. The brooding period is usually 5â€14 days, but longer incubation periods are known (Smith et al. , 2011). Common symptoms of infection in humans include headache, chills, edginess and myalgia, with or without signs of respiratory involvement (Smith et al. , 2011). Theref ore, sensory faculty of the danger and early diagnosis are important. Transmission of psittacosis from human to human is rare but can occur.Transmission from humans to birds has not been documented. Diagnoses The diagnosis of C. psittaci infections in birds can be a problem because of the occurrence of persistent infections in non-shedding clinically healthy birds. Isolation of C. psittaci is currently regarded as the meter method for the determination of active infections of birds. Polymerase concatenation reaction (PCR) techniques have been also used to detect C. psittaci in samples of tissues, feces and respiratory specimens, and were found to be quite warm and rapid. Diagnoses can also be found by clinical presentation and corroboratory antibodies against C. sittaci using microimmunoflourescence (MIF) methods (Seth-Smith et al. , 2011). Conventional ELISA tests have been developed for detecting antibodies to C. psittaci in birds, provided, it tends to aesthesia and speci fimetropolis. intercession No commercial vaccine is available for avian chlamydiosis. Antibiotic treatment of birds is the usual response to known infections. Tetracyclines are usually considered the drugs of choice although quinolones or macrolides have also been used (Tully, 2001). Chlortetracycline (CTC) is given up on food depending on the bird species to be inured and type of food (Tully, 2001).Another drug that has also proved to be effective is doxycycline, which has been used for injecting and to treat bird food/ drinking water. Tetracycline antibiotics are the drug of choice for C. psittaci infection in humans. Mild to moderate cases can be treated with oral doxycycline or tetracycline hydrochloride (West, 2011). Severely ill patients should be treated with intravenous (IV) doxycycline hyclate. Treatment with antimicrobial drugs in humans usually lasts for 3 weeks while birds are treated for 45 days. Most C. psittaci infections are antiphonal to antibiotics within 1 to 2 days, however relapses can occur (Seth-Smith et al. 2011). Therefore healthy use of these drugs is very important, to prevent the learning of drug-resistant bacterial strains Prevention Management of feral pigeon populations in the urban environment is a complex issue that requires careful planning. rearing initiatives to communicate the health risks and recommendations for minimizing these risks should primarily be directed at susceptible groups such as the elderly, young children, immunosupressed individuals, homeless, and occupationally exposed groups (Harkinezhad, Geens & Vanrompay, 2009).Children should be warned not to insure sick or dead pigeons and immunocompromised individuals should be educated to carefully bounce their contact with feral pigeons. Strict sound procedures should also be enforced when dealings with birds. Pigeon feeders should be encouraged to stop or limit their activity by implementing a feeding ban in specify urban areas (Harkinezhad, Ge ens & Vanrompay, 2009). Furthermore, economy of urban hygiene is very important and should be included in the aims of administrators and health officials, as it will lead to a reduced and healthier feral pigeon population (Vazquez et al. , 2010).The relationship between feeding, overcrowding, and the deterioration of living conditions of pigeons, should be the main focalization when educating the general public. Monitoring for C. psittaci infections over time, by direct detection of the organism and/or by specific antibody testing, should also be considered in those who are in frequent close contact with bird puplations (ie. occupationally exposed workers) (Smith et al. , 2011). In addition, preventive measures such as have on protective clothes with hoods, boots, gloves and air dribble face masks should be worn when removing pigeon faeces from roofs, attics and/or buildings.Finally, for the sake of animal protection, visibly sick birds should be captured and taken into veterinarian care where they should be appropriately treated with effective drugs such as tetracyclines, quinolones or macrolides (Seth-Smith et al. , 2011). . Conclusion Feral pigeons, more commonly known as ‘urban’ or ‘city’ pigeons, are present in both urban and rural areas all over the world. Due to frequent and close contact with people, pigeons are a public health headache as they are a source of many zoonotic agents.In particular Chlamydophila psittaci, a bacterium known to cause psittacosis in both birds and humans (Harkinezhad, Geens & Vanrompay, 2009). Due to the growing population of pigeons, contact with infected pigeons or pathogen transmission is greatly increased. The infectious agent can be substantially transmitted to humans through inhalation of contaminated dust and aerosols from infected pigeons or their feces. Once infected, people suffer from assorted conditions including mild influenza-like symptoms or severe pneumonia.In addition, the huge increase of feral pigeon populations in many cities is a major cause of concern due to the detrimental effect of pigeon sludge on environmental hygiene. Therefore it is important to monitor the health of both city bird populations and humans who come in close contact with possibly infected birds. As well, awareness and preventative measures must be taken into consideration when handling infected birds or their feces. Furthermore, management of feral population and preservation of urban hygiene is very important in unequivocal psittacosis. Work Cited Aundria West.A brief review of Chlamydophila psittaci in birds and humans. diary of Exotic Pet Medicine. 2011. 20:18â€2. 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Chlamydophila psittaci transmission from pet birds to humans. emergent Infectious Diseases. 2007. 13: 1108-1110. Vazquez B, Esperon F, Neves E, Lopez J, Ballesteros C, Munoz M. Screening for several(prenominal) potential pathogens in feral pigeons (Columba livia) in Madrid. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52:45-51.\r\n'